Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is distinguished by a highly inflamed tumor microenvironment (TME) that offers both opportunities and challenges for immunotherapy. This review synthesizes current insights into the immunological landscape of RCC, highlighting robust cluster of differentiation 8‑positiv (CD8⁺) T-cell infiltration, unconventional antigen sources such as endogenous retroviruses and frameshift neoantigens, and the heterogeneity of immune niches revealed by single-cell and spatial profiling. We then examine the clinical impact and mechanisms of immune checkpoint inhibitors —including programmed cell death protein 1 (PD‑1), programmed death‑ligand 1 (PD‑L1), and cytotoxic T‑lymphocyte‑associated protein 4 (CTLA‑4)—tumor vaccines, cellular therapies such as chimeric antigen receptor T cell (CAR‑T) therapy and tumor‑infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and bispecific antibody constructs, emphasizing advances in dosing, engineering, and combination regimens. Combination strategies—including dual checkpoint blockade, integration with anti-angiogenic tyrosine kinase inhibitors, radiotherapy, metabolism-targeted agents such as adenosine and poly (ADP‑ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors, and hypoxia modulators—are reviewed for their capacity to overcome resistance and remodel the microenvironment. We further explore intrinsic and acquired resistance mechanisms, the immunosuppressive roles of myeloid and stromal elements, and emerging biomarker approaches spanning genomic, transcriptomic, spatial, and circulating analytes. Finally, we discuss current limitations—such as variable clinical response, toxicities, and biomarker gaps—and outline future prospects, including personalized combination regimens, next-generation engineered cell products, and artificial intelligence (AI)-driven precision monitoring. Together, these insights chart a path toward more effective, individualized immunotherapy in RCC.

Ischemic heart disease (IHD) remains a major cause of global morbidity and mortality, with limited regenerative capacity of the adult myocardium posing a persistent therapeutic challenge. Stem cell-based interventions have emerged as a promising approach, offering the potential to restore cardiac function through angiogenesis, anti-fibrotic modulation, and tissue integration. This review comprehensively examines the therapeutic potential of three major cell types—induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (iPSC-CMs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), and cardiac progenitor cells (CPCs)—in both preclinical and clinical settings. iPSC-CMs demonstrate direct cardiomyocyte replacement and promote neovascularization via the VEGF/PI3K/Akt pathway. MSCs act primarily through paracrine signaling, attenuating fibrosis and inflammation via TGF-β/Smad2/3 activation, while CPCs support myocardial survival and integration through Notch signaling. Clinical trials highlight moderate improvements in left ventricular function and quality of life, particularly with MSC and CPC therapies. However, challenges persist, including cell immaturity, immune rejection, limited engraftment, and inconsistent long-term efficacy. Future directions emphasize strategies to enhance cell maturation, reduce immunogenicity, and refine clinical trial design. Integration of bioengineering techniques, gene modification, and personalized therapeutic platforms may ultimately enable the safe and effective translation of stem cell therapies into routine care for patients with IHD.

In recent years, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have revolutionized the treatment landscape of renal cell carcinoma (RCC), significantly enhanced patient outcomes and expanded therapeutic options beyond traditional surgical and targeted approaches. In this review, we provide a comprehensive review of the current applications of ICI in RCC therapy, elucidating their mechanisms of action, clinical efficacy across both clear cell and non-clear cell subtypes, and safety profiles. We compare the effectiveness of monotherapy versus combination therapies, demonstrating how synergistic approaches can improve efficacy and durability of responses. Furthermore, we explore the integration of multi-omics technologies, such as single-cell RNA sequencing and spatial transcriptomics, which are pivotal in predicting ICI response and addressing resistance mechanisms. Our discussion also addresses the critical challenges in RCC immunotherapy, including primary and acquired resistance, economic and ethical barriers, and the management of immune-related adverse events. By synthesizing current research and clinical findings, this review aims to provide valuable insights for optimizing RCC immunotherapy, fostering the development of more effective and individualized treatment protocols, and ultimately improving patient survival and quality of life.